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Some of the most prominent philosophers of the 20th and 21st centuries are Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jean-Paul Sartre, Claude Levi-Strauss, Albert Camus, Richard Rorty, Noam Chomsky and Slavoj Žižek.
Philosophy is said to be the mother of all disciplines. It is the oldest of all disciplines and gave rise to modern science as we know it today as both social and natural sciences have their roots in philosophy. Modern sciences either directly emerged from philosophy or are very closely related to philosophical questions. Understanding philosophy and of course, the way problems are addressed by philosophers is therefore the key to understanding of science as we know it today.
Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophers The “love for wisdom” (English translation of the Greek word philosophia) dates back to the ancient times in both the East and West. Although the fundamental questions of philosophy have been dealt with very early, the history of the Western philosophy begins with the ancient Greek philosophers in Asia Minor in the 6th century BC. Thales of Miletus who is regarded as the first ancient Greek philosopher had profoundly influenced other Greek thinkers, encouraging them to search for the answers in nature rather than supernatural world. The next centuries saw the rise of philosophical schools throughout Greece and emergence of some of the greatest thinkers of Western philosophy including Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato and of course, Aristotle.
Ancient Greek philosophy continued to flourish in the Western world throughout the Roman period in the form of Hellenistic and then Greco-Roman philosophy that was dominated by Greco-Roman philosophers of Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch and Plotinus, to mention only a few. The late Roman period, however, also saw the rise of Early Christian philosophers such as Augustine of Hippo (also known as St. Augustine) who profoundly influenced medieval philosophy that was completely dominated by theological questions. Medieval Philosophers
The fall of the Western Roman Empire marked the end of the Greco-Roman philosophy and many of the greatest philosophical works have been lost. But in contrary to the common misconception, medieval philosophers were not only dealing with questions such as how many angels can stand on the head of a pin nor completely ignored the works of Greco-Roman philosophers. At the same time, the works that have been lost in the West after the fall of Rome found their way back to Europe through Muslim conquests and later the Crusades. Medieval philosophers, although preoccupied with theological questions, did not reject the Greco-Roman philosophy but worked on how to reconcile it with the Christian reasoning, especially the Aristotle’s logic. This was finally achieved by St. Thomas Aquinas who is considered one of the most important medieval philosophers.
Modern Philosophers
The Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period were marked by an increased interest in ancient philosophy independently from the Christian Church and scholasticism that dominated the medieval thought. Renaissance movement that would eventually spread throughout Europe emphasised rationalism and empiricism which in turn gave rise to the Age of Reason and modern philosophy. Erasmus, Niccolo Machiavelli, Galileo Galilei and Francis Bacon marked the beginning of departure from the medieval approach to fundamental philosophical questions which was furthered by the 17th century philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Blaise Pascal, Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, John Locke and George Berkeley, to mention only a few of the greatest names of the 17th century philosophy.
The works of the 17th century philosophers have profoundly influenced the next generation of thinkers such as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant, David Hume, Thomas Pain and Adam Smith who laid the foundation to the so-called Enlightenment, while many also played an important role in the far-reaching political changes that took place in the 18th century including the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
The 19th century philosophers, although greatly influenced by the Enlightenment ideas, introduced a number of new concepts including idealism (the German schools), utilitarianism (Britain), Marxism, existentialism, pragmatism and positivism. Some of the greatest names of the 19th century philosophy include Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Friedrich Nietzsche and Auguste Comte who is also regarded as the founder of the modern discipline of sociology.
Contemporary philosophy refers to period from the beginning of the 20th century until the present-day. The 20th century saw the professionalisation of the discipline but it also saw the rise of new schools which, however, would split philosophers between “analytic” and “continental” although some contemporary philosophers regard themselves as the bridge between the two traditions.
Eastern Philosophy
Eastern philosophy which encompasses Chinese, Japanese, Indian and other Far Eastern philosophies as well as Jewish and Islamic philosophies (although the latter two are sometimes also considered as a part of Western philosophy) developed independently from Western philosophy. Generally, Eastern philosophers were not as occupied with questions relating to the nature of God although both Jewish and Islamic philosophers were just as focused on reconciling new ideas with Judaism and Islam as their western colleagues. Far Eastern philosophers mostly dealt with the questions of ethics, morality, justice, etc. rather than religious truths. But some such as Confucius and Tao for instance, gave rise to religions and state ideologies.
Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) is widely considered Rome’s greatest orator and verse writer but he was also an influential statesman, successful lawyer and philosopher. He has greatly influenced the Western thought and philosophy despite the fact that his own contribution to the discipline is generally considered of lesser importance. However, thanks to Cicero, Western philosophers gained access to many important ancient philosophical works that would otherwise be lost forever.
Personal Life
Cicero was born in 106 BCE to a wealthy landowner who had good connections with the social elites in Rome but he was prevented from entering the public life due to a physical disability. Cicero is said to have been a talented student which enabled him to study law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola, one of the greatest authorities on Roman law. Around 83 BCE, he started practising law and won his first major case during Sulla’s dictatorship. He got his client acquitted of murder by accusing Sulla’s favourites for his client’s crime which was very risky because the dictator could easy had at the time unknown Cicero assassinated.
In 79 BCE, Cicero went to Greece to study and probably also to avoid Sulla’s counter-measures for his accusations in the court. He returned to Rome in 76 BCE, got married. One year later, he became quaestor which got him a chair in the Senate. Victory in the case of Gaius Verres against the best advocate at the time in 70 BCE increased his prestige and by 63 BCE, he held the office of consul which was the highest political position he could legally hold in his age. However, his political career soon brought him into trouble. He exposed the Catilina conspiracy which foresaw his assassination and overthrow of the Roman Republic. He was awarded the Pater Patriae honour but feared a trial or exile for having the conspirators put to death without trial.
In 60 BCE, Cicero was invited by Julius Caesar to join him, Pompey and Crassus as the fourth triumvir. He refused Caesar’s offer and publicly spoke against Caesar. This earned him an exile in Macedonia but he was recalled to Rome after 16 months. After returning to Rome, he tried to return to politics but he failed to turn Pompey against his co-triumvirs. He dedicated himself to writing and occasionally defended the triumvirate. He did not interfere in the war between Pompey and Caesar, and did not try to return to politics after Pompey’s death. Instead, he throw himself into writing rhetoric and philosophy.
Although Cicero disliked Caesar’s dictatorship and approved conspiracy against him, he was not involved in his assassination. After Caesar’s death, he tried to reconcile his assassins and Mark Antony but he soon concluded that the latter is threat to the Republic. He began to speak publicly against Mark Antony on behalf of Octavian (later Augustus). However, before the two started a war for the rule over Rome, they reached an agreement and together with Lepidus set up a three-man dictatorship. Both Octavian and Mark Antony started eliminating their enemies as the enemies of the state and in 43 BCE, Cicero was assassinated on Mark Antony’s order.
Cicero’s Philosophical Works
Although Cicero is considered one of the most important Western philosophers, he did not make any major contributions to the discipline as such. All his works are written in outstanding Latin prose, proving his brilliance with words but do not offer much originality. However, it is important to note that Cicero was primarily a politician and considered politics a priority. Ironically, he turned out to be the least successful in politics which was directly responsible for his premature death. Cicero’s philosophical works are mostly reproductions of the prominent Greek philosophers, mostly stoic. However, his works “De amicitia” (On Friendship), “De senectute” (On Old Age), “De officiis” (On Duty), “De natural deorum” (On the Nature of the Gods), to mention only a few are a priceless source of ancient Greek philosophy, while rediscovery of Cicero’s letters by Petrarch in the 14th century is by some thought to gave rise to Renaissance. Cicero’s writings also had a major influence on the Enlightenment philosophers, particularly Montesquieu, John Locke and David Hume.
Other Works
Cicero is best known for his speeches (of which 57 have survived) and political philosophy. He is also known to have been a highly respected poet, however, none of his poetry survived. The works that did survived including hundreds of letters he wrote to various correspondents came to be regarded as a synonym for Latin as well as a priceless source for history of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire.
David Hume (1711-1776) went into history as one of the most important figures of Western philosophy but he also made important contributions to history and literature. In contrary to rationalists such as Descartes, Hume argued that it is not reason that governs human behaviour but desire instead. He said that “reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions”. But despite the fact that had profoundly influenced the next generation of philosophers, his theories were not received particularly well by his contemporaries.
Personal Life