The Christian Church is to be defined as the one, many-branched communion, consisting of all those who confess that Jesus of Nazareth is the Christ who in the fulness of time appeared as the Saviour of the world. It is the Church’s special task to render the saving work of Christ increasingly fruitful for all nations and individuals, under all the varying conditions of life and stages of culture. It is the task of Church History to describe the course of development through which the Church as a whole, as well as its special departments and various institutions, has passed, from the time of its foundation down to our own day; to show what have been the Church’s advances and retrogressions, how it has been furthered and hindered; and to tell the story of its deterioration and renewal.
The treatment of Church History, on account of its manifold ramifications, demands a distribution of its material, on the one hand, according to definite periods, during which the end hitherto aimed at in the whole course of development has been practically attained, so that either entirely new phenomena gain prominence, or else the old go forth in an altogether different direction; on the other hand, according to the various phases of endeavour and development, which in respect of time are evolved alongside of one another. When this last-mentioned method of division is adopted, we may still choose between two different modes of treatment. First, we may deal with national churches, in so far as these are independent and have pursued some special direction; or with particular churches, which have originated from the splitting up of the church universal over some important difference in doctrine, worship, and constitution. Secondly, we may group our material according to the various departments of historical activity, which are essential to the intellectual and spiritual life of all national churches and denominations, and are thus common to all, although in different churches in characteristic ways and varying degrees. It follows however from the very idea of history, especially from that of the universal history of the church, that the distribution according to periods must be the leading feature of the entire exposition. At the same time, whatever may now and again, in accordance with the other principles of arrangement, be brought into prominence will be influenced materially by the course of the history and formally by the facility afforded for review by the mode of treatment pursued.
§ 2.1. The Various Branches Included in a Complete Course of Church History.—The Christian Church has undertaken the task of absorbing all peoples and tongues. Hence it is possessed of an eager desire to enlarge its borders by the conversion of all non-Christian races. The description of what helps or hinders this endeavour, the history of the spread and limitation of Christianity, is therefore an essential constituent of church history. Since, further, the church, in order to secure its continued existence and well-being, must strive after a legally determined position outwardly, as well as a firm, harmonious articulation, combination and order inwardly, it evidently also belongs to our science to give the history of the ecclesiastical constitution, both of the place which the church has in the state, and the relation it bears to the state; and also of its own internal arrangements by superordination, subordination, and co-ordination, and by church discipline and legislation. Not less essential, nay, even more important for the successful development of the church, is the construction and establishment of saving truth. In Holy Scripture the church indeed has possession of the fountain and standard, as well as the all-sufficient power and fulness, of all saving knowledge. But the words of Scripture are spirit and life, living seeds of knowledge, which, under the care of the same Spirit who sows them, may and shall be developed so as to yield a harvest which becomes ever more and more abundant; and therefore the fulness of the truth which dwells in them comes to be known more simply, clearly, fully, and becomes always more fruitful for all stages and forms of culture, for faith, for science, and for life. Hence church history is required to describe the construction of the doctrine and science of the church, to follow its course and the deviations from it into heresy, whenever these appear. The church is, further, in need of a form of public worship as a necessary expression of the feelings and emotions of believers toward their Lord and God, as a means of edification and instruction. The history of the worship of the church is therefore also an essential constituent of church history. It is also the duty of the church to introduce into the practical life and customs of the people that new spiritual energy of which she is possessor. And thus the history of the Christian life among the people comes to be included in church history as a further constituent of the science. Further, there is also included here, in consequence of the nature and aim of Christianity as a leaven (Matt. xiii. 33), an account of the effects produced upon it by the development of art (of which various branches, architecture, sculpture, painting, music, have a direct connexion with Christian worship), and likewise upon national literature, philosophy, and secular science generally; and also, conversely, an estimate of the influence of these forms of secular culture upon the condition of the church and religion must not be omitted. The order of succession in the historical treatment of these phases under which the life of the church is manifested, is not to be rigidly determined in the same way for all ages after an abstract logical scheme. For each period that order of succession should be adopted which will most suitably give prominence to those matters which have come to the front, and so call for early and detailed treatment in the history of that age.
§ 2.2. The Separate Branches of Church History.—The constituent parts of church history that have been already enumerated are of such importance that they might also be treated as independent sciences, and indeed for the most part they have often been so treated. In this way, not only is a more exact treatment of details rendered possible, but also, what is more important, the particular science so limited can be construed in a natural manner according to principles furnished by itself. The history of the spread and limitation of Christianity then assumes a separate form as the History of Missions. The separate history of the ecclesiastical constitution, worship, and customs is known by the name of Christian Archæology, which is indeed, in respect of title and contents, an undefined conglomeration of heterogeneous elements restricted in a purely arbitrary way to the early ages. The treatment of this department therefore requires that we should undertake the scientific task of distinguishing these heterogeneous elements, and arranging them apart for separate consideration; thus following the course of their development down to the present day, as the history of the constitution, of the worship, and of the culture of the church. The history of the development of doctrine falls into four divisions:
As the conclusion and result of church history at particular periods, we have the science of Ecclesiastical Statistics, which describes the condition of the church in respect of all its interests as it stands at some particular moment, “like a slice cut cross-wise out of its history.” The most important works in these departments are the following:
Brown, “Hist. of Propag. of Christ. among Heathen since Reformation.” 3rd Ed., 3 vols., Edin., 1854.
Warneck, “Outlines of Hist. of Prot. Miss.” Edin., 1884.
Smith, “Short Hist. of Christ. Miss.” Edin., 1884.
Ranke, “History of Papacy in 16th and 17th Cent.” 2 vols., Lond., 1855.
Platina (Lib. of Vatican), “Lives of Popes.” (1481). Trans. by Rycaut, Lond., 1685.
Bower, “Hist. of Popes.” 7 vols., Lond., 1750.
Bryce, “Holy Rom. Empire.” Lond., 1866.
Creighton, “Hist. of Papacy during the Reformation.” Vols. I.-IV., from A.D. 1378–1518, Lond., 1882–1886.
Janus, “Pope and the Council.” Lond., 1869.
Pennington, “Epochs of the Papacy.” Lond., 1882.
Hospinianus [Hospinian], “De Monachis.” Etc., Tigur., 1609.
Maitland, “The Dark Ages.” Lond., 1844.
Hefele, “Hist. of Councils.” Vols. I.-III., to A.D. 451, Edin., 1871–1883. (Original German work brought down to the Council of Trent exclusive.)
Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Eccl. Documents illust. Eccl. Hist. of Gr. Brit. and Ireland.” 3 vols., Lond., 1869 ff.
Phillimore, “Eccl. Law.” Lond., 1873.
By Cath. Didron, “Christ. Iconography; or, Hist. of Christ. Art in M. A.” Lond., 1886.
By Prot. Bingham, “Antiq. of Christ. Church.” 9 vols., Lond., 1845.
“Dictionary of Christ. Antiquities.” Ed. by Smith & Cheetham, 2 vols., Lond., 1875 ff.
Neander, “Hist. of Christ. Doct.” 2 vols., Lond.
Hagenbach, “Hist. of Christ. Doctrines.” 3 vols., Edin., 1880 f.
Shedd, “Hist. of Christ. Doc.” 2 vols., Edin., 1869.
Winer, “Confessions of Christendom.” Edin., 1873.
Schaff, “Creeds of Christendom.” 3 vols., Edin., 1877 ff.
Möhler, “Symbolism: an Expos. of the Doct. Differences between Catholics and Protestants.” 2 vols., Lond., 1843.
Dupin, “New History of Ecclesiastical Writers.” Lond., 1696.
Cave, “Script. Eccl. Hist. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1668.
Fabricii, “Biblioth. Græca.” 14 vols., Hamb., 1705; “Biblioth. Mediæ et infinæ Latin.” 6 vols., Hamb., 1734.
Teuffel, “Hist. of Rom. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1873.
Buddæus, “Isagoge Hist. Theol. ad Theol. Univ.” Lps., 1727.
Räbiger, “Encyclopædia of Theology.” 2 vols., Edin., 1884.
Dorner, “Hist. of Prot. Theol.” 2 vols., Edin., 1871.
Davidson, “Sacred Hermeneutics; including Hist. of Biblical Interpretation from earliest Fathers to Reformation.” Edin., 1843.
Farrar, “Hist. of Interpretation.” Lond., 1886.
Wuttke’s “Christian Ethics.” Vol. I., “Hist. of Ethics.” Edin., 1873.
“Acta Sanctorum.” 63 vols. fol., Ant., 1643 ff.
Mabillon, “Acta Ss. ord. S. Bened.” 9 vols. fol., Par., 1666 ff.
Flaccius [Flacius], “Catalog. Testium Veritatis.” 1555.
Piper, “Lives of Leaders of Church Universal.” 2 vols., Edin.
Smith and Wace, “Dict. of Chr. Biog.” etc., 4 vols., Lond., 1877 ff.
In the history of the world’s culture three historical stages of universal development succeed each other: the Oriental, the Franco-German, and the Teutono-Romanic. The kingdom of God had to enter each of these and have in each a distinctive character, so that as comprehensive a development as possible might be secured. The history of the preparation for Christianity in the history of the Israelitish theocracy moves along the lines of Oriental culture. The history of the beginnings of Christianity embraces the history of the founding of the church by Christ and His Apostles. These two together constitute Biblical history, which, as an independent branch of study receiving separate treatment, need be here treated merely in a brief, introductory manner. This holds true also of the history of pagan culture alongside of and subsequent to the founding of the church. Church history, strictly so-called, the development of the already founded church, begins therefore, according to our conception, with the Post-Apostolic Age, and from that point pursues its course in three principal divisions. The ancient church completes its task by thoroughly assimilating the elements contributed by the Græco-Roman forms of civilization. In the Teutono-Romanic Church of the middle ages the appropriation and amalgamation of ancient classical modes of thought with modern tendencies awakened by its immediate surroundings were carried out and completed. On the other hand, the development of church history since the Reformation has its impulse given it by that Teutono-Christian culture which had maturity and an independent form secured to it by the Reformation. This distribution in accordance with the various forms of civilization seems to us so essential, that we propose to borrow from it our principle for the arrangement of our church history.
The chronological distribution of the material may be represented in the following outline:
First Section, A.D. 70 to A.D. 323—down to the final victory of Christianity over the Græco-Roman paganism; the Post-Apostolic and Old Catholic Ages.
Second Section, from A.D. 323 to A.D. 692—down to the final close of œcumenical development of doctrine in A.D. 680, and the appearance of what proved a lasting estrangement between the Eastern and the Western Churches in A.D. 692, which was soon followed by the alliance of the Papacy with the Frankish instead of the Byzantine empire; the Œcumenico-Catholic Church, or the Church of the Roman-Byzantine Empire.
Third Section, from A.D. 692 to A.D. 1453—down to the overthrow of Constantinople. Languishing and decay of the old church life in the Byzantine Empire; complete breach and futile attempts at union between East and West. The Church of the Byzantine Empire.
First Section, 4–9th cent.—from the first beginnings of Teutonic church life down to the end of the Carlovingian Age, A.D. 911. The Teutonic Age.
Second Section, 10–13th cent.—down to Boniface VIII., A.D. 1294; rise of mediæval institutions—the Papacy, Monasticism, Scholasticism; Germany in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political movement.
Third Section, the 14–15th cent.—down to the Reformation in A.D. 1517; deterioration and collapse of mediæval institutions; France in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political movement.
First Section, the 16th cent. Age of Evangelical-Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation.
Second Section, the 17th cent. Age of Orthodoxy on the Protestant side and continued endeavours after restoration on the side of Catholicism.
Third Section, the 18th cent. Age of advancing Illuminism in both churches—Deism, Naturalism, Rationalism.
Fourth Section, the 19th cent. Age of re-awakened Christian and Ecclesiastical life. Unionism, Confessionalism, and Liberalism in conflict with one another on the Protestant side; the revival of Ultramontanism in conflict with the civil power on the Catholic side. In opposition to both churches, widespread pantheistic, materialistic, and communistic tendencies.
The sources of Church history are partly original, in the shape of inscriptions and early documents; partly derivative, in the shape of traditions and researches in regard to primitive documents that have meanwhile been lost. Of greater importance to church history than the so-called dumb sources, e.g. church buildings, furniture, pictures, are the inscriptions coming down from the earliest times; but of the very highest importance are the extant official documents, e.g. acts and decisions of Church Councils, decrees and edicts of the Popes—decretals, bulls, briefs—the pastoral letters of bishops, civil enactments and decrees regarding ecclesiastical matters, the rules of Spiritual Orders, monastic rules, liturgies, confessional writings, the epistles of influential ecclesiastical and civil officers, reports by eye witnesses, sermons and doctrinal treatises by Church teachers, etc. In regard to matters not determined by any extant original documents, earlier or later fixed traditions and historical researches must take the place of those lost documents.—Sciences Auxiliary to Church History are such as are indispensable for the critical estimating and sifting, as well as for the comprehensive understanding of the sources of church history. To this class the following branches belong: Diplomatics, which teaches how to estimate the genuineness, completeness, and credibility of the documents in question; Philology, which enables us to understand the languages of the sources; Geography and Chronology, which make us acquainted with the scenes and periods where and when the incidents related in the original documents were enacted. Among auxiliary sciences in the wider sense, the history of the State, of Law, of Culture, of Literature, of Philosophy, and of Universal Religion, may also be included as indispensable owing to their intimate connection with ecclesiastical development.
§ 4.1. Literature of the Sources.—
de Rossi, “Inscriptt. chr. urbis Rom.” Vols. I. II., Rome, 1857.
Harduin [Hardouin], “Conc. coll.” (to A.D. 1715), 12 vols., Par., 1715.
Mansi, “Conc. nova et ampl. coll.” 31 vols., Flor., 1759.
Jaffe, “Regesta pont. Rom.” (to A.D. 1198), 2 ed., Brl., 1881.
Potthast, “Regesta pont. Rom.” (A.D. 1198–1304), 2 Vols., Brl., 1873.
The Papal Decretals in “Corp. jur. Canonici.” ed., Friedberg, Lips., 1879.
“Bullarum, diplom. et privil. SS. rom. pont.” Taurenensis editio, 24 vols., 1857 ff.
Nussi, “Conventiones de reb. eccl. inter s. sedem et civ. pot. initæ.” Mogunt., 1870.
Holstenii, “Cod. regul. mon. et. can.” 6 vols., 1759.
Daniel, “Cod. liturg. eccl. univ.” 4 vols., Leipz., 1847 ff.
Hammond, “Ancient Liturgies.” Oxf., 1878.
Kimmel, “Ll. Symb. eccl. Orient.” Jena., 1843.
Danz, “Ll. Symb. eccl. Rom. Cath.” Weimar, 1835.
Hase, “Ll. Symb. eccl. evang.” Ed. iii., Leipz., 1840.
Niemeyer, “Coll. Conf. eccl. Ref.” Leipz., 1840.
Schaff, “Creeds of Christendom.” 3 vols., Lond., 1882.
Ruinart, “Acta prim. Mart.” 3 vols., 1802.
Assemanni [Assemani], “Acta SS. Mart. orient. et occid.” 2 vols., Rome, 1748.
Migne, “Patrologiæ currus completus.” Ser. I., Eccl. Græc., 162 vols., Par., 1857 ff.; Ser. II., Eccl. Lat., 221 vols., Par., 1844 ff.
Horoy, “Media ævi biblioth. patrist.” (from A.D. 1216 to 1564), Paris, 1879.
“Corpus Scriptorum eccl. lat.” Vindob., 1866 ff.
Grabe, “Spicilegium SS. Pp. et Hærett.” Sæc. I.-III., 3 vols., Oxford, 1698.
Routh, “Reliquiæ sac.” 4 vols., Oxford, 1814 ff.
“Ante-Nicene Christian Library; a collection of all the works of the Fathers of the Christian Church prior to the Council of Nicæa.” 24 vols., Edin., 1867 ff.
Assemanus [Assemani], “Biblioth. orient.” 4 vols., Rome, 1719.
Niebuhr, “Corp. scr. hist. Byz.” 48 vols., Bonn, 1828 ff.
Sathas, “Biblioth. Græc. Med. ævi.” Vols. I.-VI., Athens, 1872 ff.
§ 4.2. Literature of the Auxiliary Sciences.—
Mabillon, “De re diplomatic.” Ed. ii., Par., 1709.
Du Fresne (du Cange), “Glossarium ad scriptt. med. et infim. Latin.” 6 vols., Par., 1733; New ed., Henschel and Favre, in course of publication.
Du Fresne, “Glossarium, ad scriptt. med. et infim. Græc.” 2 vols., Leyden, 1688.
Suiceri, “Thesaurus ecclesiast. e patribus græcis.” Ed. ii., 2 vols., Amst., 1728.
Mich. le Quien, “Oriens christianus in quatuor patriarchatus digestus.” 3 vols., Par., 1704.
Nicolas, “The Chronology of History.” 2 ed., Lond., 1838.
“L’art de verifier les dates, by d’Antine.” Etc., ed. by Courcelles, 19 vols., Par., 1821–1824.
The earliest writer of church history properly so called is Eusebius, Bishop of Cæsarea, † 340. During the fifth century certain members of the Greek Church continued his work. The Western Church did not so soon engage upon undertakings of that sort, and was contented with translations and reproductions of the materials that had come down from the Greeks instead of entering upon original investigations. During the middle ages, in consequence of the close connection subsisting between Church and State, the Greek Scriptores historiæ Byzantinæ, as well as the Latin national histories, biographies, annals, and chronicles, are of the very utmost importance as sources of information regarding the church history of their times. It was the Reformation, however, that first awakened and inspired the spirit of true critical research and scientific treatment of church history, for the appeal of the Reformers to the pure practices and institutions of the early days of the church demanded an authoritative historical exposition of the founding of the church, and this obliged the Catholic church to engage upon the studies necessary for this end. The Lutheran as well as the Catholic Church, however, down to the middle of the 17th century, were satisfied with the voluminous productions of the two great pioneers in Church history, Flacius and Baronius. Afterwards, however, emulation in the study of church history was excited, which was undoubtedly, during the 17th century, most successfully prosecuted in the Catholic Church. In consequence of the greater freedom which prevailed in the Gallican Church, these studies flourished conspicuously in France, and were pursued with exceptional success by the Oratorians and the Order of St. Maur. The Reformed theologians, especially in France and the Netherlands, did not remain far behind them in the contest. Throughout the 18th century, again, the performances of the Lutheran Church came to the front, while a laudable rivalry leads the Reformed to emulate their excellencies. In the case of the Catholics, on the other hand, that zeal and capacity which, during the 17th century, had won new laurels in the field of honour, were now sadly crippled. But as rationalism spread in the domain of doctrine, pragmatism spread in the domain of church history, which set for itself as the highest ideal of historical writing the art of deducing everything in history, even what is highest and most profound in it, from the co-operation of fortune and passion, arbitrariness and calculation. It was only in the 19th century, when a return was made to the careful investigation of original authorities, and it came to be regarded as the task of the historian, to give a conception and exposition of the science as objective as possible, that this erroneous tendency was arrested.